About Education

Understanding the IPRC

The Education Act in Ontario requires that school boards provide, or purchase from another school board, special education programs and services for “exceptional” students. Exceptional students are defined as those whose “behavioural, communicational, intellectual, physical, or multiple exceptionalities are such that they are considered to need placement in a special education program.”

The role of the IPRC is to:
1) decide whether or not your child should be identified as exceptional;
2) identify the areas of your child’s exceptionality;
3) decide an appropriate placement; and
4) review the identification and placement at least once each school year.

To start an IPRC, you must contact your child’s principal, in writing, and request that your child be referred to an IPRC. Your child’s principal may also make the referral on his or her own initiative. Within 15 school days of making the referral, the principal must send you written notification, including an approximate date of the IPRC meeting and a parent’s guide containing information about the IPRC. The principal may also ask you for permission to obtain a psychological or health assessment of your child. While an educational assessment will also be performed, parental permission is not required for this.

At least 10 school days before the IPRC is to meet, you (and your child, if 16 or over) will receive written notice of the meeting and an invitation to attend. This letter will list the date, time, and place of the meeting, and will ask you to indicate if you can attend. Before the IPRC meets, you will also receive a copy of all information that the chair of the IPRC has received.

If you can’t attend this meeting, contact the school principal immediately to arrange an alternative date or to let the principal know that you will not be attending. If, however, you cannot attend, the IPRC’s written decision will be sent to you.

Either you or your child’s principal may make a request for others to attend the IPRC meeting. As well, you are entitled to have a representative or advocate who may speak on your behalf.

What Happens at the Meeting?

After introductions are made, the IPRC reviews all available information about your child. They consider the educational assessments and the health or psychological assessments, if these were obtained. If they feel it will be useful, they may also interview your child (with your permission, if your child is under 16 years of age). They will also consider any information that you submit about your child or that the child, if 16 or over, submits on his or her own behalf. You are encouraged to ask questions during this meeting and to participate in any discussion.

Once all of the information has been presented and discussed, the committee will make its decision. This decision will include:

• whether or not the child is exceptional;
• if exceptional, the category and definition of the exceptionality;
• the strengths and needs of the student;
• the placement of the student. The IPRC will recommend placement in a regular class with special education services if, in the Committee’s opinion, such a placement meets the student’s needs and is consistent with the parent’s preferences. Note that while the IPRC will consider the parent’s preferences, these preferences are not binding, and the final decision about placement belongs to the IPRC.
• the IPRC’s recommendations regarding a special education program and services; and
• where appropriate, the reasons for placing your child in a special education class.

What Happens Next?

You will receive a written statement of the IPRC’s decision. If you did not attend the meeting, this will be mailed to you. You will be asked to sign this document to indicate that you agree with the IPRC’s decisions and recommendations. If you attended the meeting, you may be asked to sign at that time. Note, however, you have 30 days to return the signed document to the IPRC. Once the document is signed and returned, the board will promptly notify the principal of the school at which the special education program is to be provided. That principal will then begin the process of developing your child’s Individual Education Plan (IEP).
What If I Disagree with the Decision?

If you disagree with the IPRC’s decision, you have 15 school days to request a second meeting of the IPRC. If after your second meeting you are still dissatisfied, you have 15 school days from the second decision to file an appeal. Your request for an appeal must be made in writing to the secretary of the school board. (The name and address of this person can be obtained from your child’s principal). You must indicate the decision(s) with which you disagree and your reasons for disagreeing. If you disagree with the original decision but do not request a second meeting or file an appeal, the decision of the IPRC will automatically be implemented after 30 school days.

The Annual Review – Or Sooner

A review IPRC meeting will be held each year, during which your child’s progress may be reviewed and the education plan revised. This review may be waived only with your written permission, and it is recommended that you do not waive this review. The annual IPRC is your chance to help ensure that your child begins each new school year in the most appropriate environment and with the most effective accommodations available.

You may also request a review IPRC any time after your child has been in a special education program for 3 months.

The Individual Education Plan (IEP)

The Individual Education Plan, commonly known as the IEP, is the school’s written plan of action for the special education student. According to the Ministry of Education, the IEP “is a working document which describes the strengths and needs of an individual exceptional pupil, the special education program and services established to meet that pupil’s needs, and how the program and services will be delivered. It also describes the student’s progress.”

An IEP must be prepared for all students who have been identified through the IPRC process, and a copy of this document must be provided to the parents (and the student, if 16 or over). IEPs may be prepared without the prerequisite of an IPRC, and schools are suggesting that parents of special needs students take this route. While there is a clear benefit in avoiding the delay of waiting for an IPRC meeting, it is important to note that the IEP is not binding without the IPRC. Despite the best efforts and intentions of your child’s school, the written decision of the IPRC is the only guarantee that your child will receive the services he or she requires.

Within 30 school days of the student’s placement in the special education program by an IPRC decision, the principal must ensure that the IEP is completed and a copy sent to the parent (and student, if 16 or over). The IEP team should ensure that everyone involved with the student is aware of the contents and requirements of the IEP.

A formal review and update of the IEP should take place at least once every reporting period; and team members should continuously monitor and adjust the plan as necessary.

Author: Lynn Ziraldo, York Region LDA

Even though parents and teachers want what is best for a student, sometimes that message can get lost. When parents and teachers see things from different perspective and fail to communicate their concerns effectively, or feel their ideas are not accepted, the parent-teacher relationship can flounder.

However, teachers and parents can and should find ways to complement each other’s skills and knowledge. By focusing on the student and developing effective communication techniques, they can work together to build an education plan that meets the student’s needs and has the support of school and family. The following techniques have helped parent and teachers build positive and strong relationships.

Strategies that Help Parents and Professionals Work Together

When parents and teacher work together, it sends the student the message that “we’re all in this together”. Therefore, it is vital that both parties learn to share planning for the student’s instructional needs, as well as identification of potential problems or areas that need work. The following practices form the basis for a good relationship.

• Listen actively. Teachers should put themselves in parents’ and students’ shoes and parents and students should put themselves in the teacher’s shoes.
• Show compassion, sensitivity, empathy and mutual respect for each other. All parties should try to understand the other’s perspective. Consistently trying to understand each other and focusing on developing solutions can avoid negative situations.
• Treat each other as equal partners in the planning and decision-making.
• Develop a mutual understanding of the strengths and needs of the student. Parents and teachers should share their understanding of the student’s learning styles. Parents can provide input on how they see the student’s physical strength, how the student interacts with others and the student’s mental processing out of the classroom, while the teacher can share his or her observations from a class vantage point. Plus, students can contribute their ideas on the ways they learn best, as well as the factors that inhibit their learning.
• Trust each other’s judgment.
• Approach disagreement in a manner that encourages mutual problem solving. Utilize a problem-solving model to keep emotionalism at bay. Most models include: stating the problem, brainstorming ideas and developing a solution. Share the model with all parents and students to let them know how the school resolves issues.

Develop a Learning Profile of the Student

By working together, parents and teachers can get a true picture of a student and create an instructional plan that works for the student and has the support of teachers and parents.
Parents and teachers should consider:

• The student’s strengths
• The student’s needs including, physical, intellectual or cognitive, education or academic, cultural, emotional and/or behavioral, social
• The student’s interests and activities
• The student’s goals
• The student’s expectations
• The each other’s expectations

Successful Meetings for Parents and Professionals

Successful meetings require the participation of teachers and parents. Both have relevant information that will help each other understand the student and develop a learning program that best fits the student’s needs. To ensure parent teacher meetings meet these objectives, both parties should:

• Focus on the best interests of the student
• Concentrate on determining a positive course of action
• List questions before attending the meeting. Doing so helps keep emotionalism from obstructing your goal and ensures that major questions are answered
• Ask questions about strategies, terms or behaviors you don’t understand. Asking is an opportunity to clear up misunderstandings and possibly hard feelings
• Determine the ways in which parents and teacher can share responsibilities. Teachers need to share the strategies they are using the in the classroom so that parents can use them at home. Parents can make sure the student has a place to do homework, as well as the equipment they need to complete assignment and if the student is not completing assignment, to enact consequences at home
• Ask for suggestions. Teachers can learn successful strategies to work with a student by asking for suggestions from parents and students. Conversely, parents can ask teachers for learning or behavior strategies they can try at home.
• Share information with the student. By attending parent/teacher meetings, students can present their ideas and perspective and l3earn to advocate for their needs.
• Set up a procedure for follow-up. Summarize the information, as this will be the basis for the next meeting.
• Express appreciation for each other’s participation in the conference

Continuing the Relationship

A continuing relationship between family and school requires a commitment to communication and shared responsibility. To encourage further positive parent/teacher interactions:

• Set up a regular communication link. Set up a communication mode that works for parents, teachers and students.
• In addition to meetings, letters, faxes, phone calls and emails can augment communication. Some educators and families correspond via a communication book in which parents, teachers and students write down observations, ideas, and concerns
• Respond to suggestions, if any party asks for suggestions, they should try them. The suggestions can be assessed and reevaluated at a later date.
• Carry out responsibilities. Both parties are responsible for carrying out their responsibilities as outline in the action plan. A reevaluation may indicate a later change.
• Monitor the progress of the action plan. Evaluating the action plan can include input from numerous sources: self-evaluation, peer evaluation, formal and informal assessment, and/or home and school observations. All forms of evaluation should have been set out in the action plan.

Author: Doris Johnson

Many parents of young children with learning disabilities ask what they can do at home to help their youngsters. Generally, the first step is to try to understand the child’s difficulties and to consider how these weaknesses might impact on self help skills, communication, discipline, play and independence. However, above all we encourage them to focus on the child’s strengths in order to build self esteem and to help them become an integral part of the family. Understanding the child’s needs takes time because needs change with age and with expectations at home, in social settings and at school.

Early Learning
The early years are particularly important because learning typically occurs so rapidly and generally without formal instruction. However, parents teach their children informally as they encourage them to notice things in the environment, as they label objects and as they guide certain social skills, appropriate behaviours and manners. And many parents provide the basis for early reading, writing and mathematics by reading stories, reciting the alphabet, colouring, copying letters, writing simple messages and playing counting games.

Children with learning disabilities will typically show uneven patterns of development and perform below expectancy in one or more areas of learning such as listening, expressive language, pre-academic skills, nonverbal behaviour and/or perceptual motor skills.

Symptoms Associated with Learning Disabilities
The symptoms associated with learning disabilities differ and may include difficulty processing auditory information, problems with visual tasks, problems processing language, problems with nonverbal skills such as interpreting facial expressions, learning to play or dressing themselves. Some have no problems until they enter school, though indications of pre-academic weaknesses may be evident.

A comprehensive evaluation is helpful in order to obtain an overall profile of strengths and weaknesses, and in order to make recommendations.

Help for Young Children
Early assistance may range from a developmental class to individual assistance. A specialist might go into a class or kindergarten to assist a child in areas of learning which appear to be most difficult, or a child’s learning might be monitored. In certain instances, parents choose private intervention, particularly if the schools do not provide services in the early childhood years.

Specialists may suggest activities at home and these should be carried out in the context of a parent-child social relationship which is pleasant and non-threatening. Children should feel loved and respected irrespective of any difficulties they may have.

Recommendations
It is important to remember that the population of children with learning disabilities is heterogeneous, therefore, not all the suggestions provided below are applicable.

Focus on the child’s strengths not the weaknesses: Find jobs and special times that allow the child to contribute to the group.

Set reasonable expectations: Try not to expect more than the child is capable of doing, but expect the best that he or she can produce. This may mean that the child will have to be taught simple skills and that complex tasks will have to be taught step by step. Provide the initial assistance and then gradually reduce the supports as the child makes progress.

Provide guidance needed for independence: Some children with learning disabilities will need careful guidance and instruction to master skills, such as crossing the street, because of attention and processing weaknesses. Gradually the supports can be reduced so the child can perform independently.

Maintain consistent discipline: Give clear, simple explanations, particularly if children have language problems. Our guideline is firmness with warmth, together with consistency.

Foster intellectual curiosity: One of our primary goals is to excite children about the learning process. Parents and teachers who enjoy learning themselves can convey such an attitude to their children. Some researchers in the field have found that children with learning disabilities are inactive learners. To offset this, adults can develop a spirit of inquiry by guiding the child’s listening and looking, by showing excitement and wonder about even simple events in the world. Take a walk around the block, look at the trees and bushes, feel the bark of the tree, smell the flowers, look at the grass, the gravel, the cement and talk about what is hard, smooth, rough and pretty.

Help children classify and categorize objects: Some children with learning disabilities have problems with conceptualization and will not naturally put groups of things together because they are the same colour or shape, or because of their use. They do not notice similarities or observe the most relevant attributes. Parents can help with this categorization process when they go to the grocery store, park, zoo or other places by noting how things in certain areas are similar. Help children categorize and reclassify objects so they become flexible thinkers. Later, encourage them to note how words are alike.

Provide good language models and stimulation: Informal, unstructured conversation is important to guide children’s learning. Parents should talk while they are doing things with the child to enhance vocabulary and concepts. Even if the child cannot speak, parents should wait for some kind of response. This kind of interaction strengthens the interpersonal relationship as well as the verbal learning.

Guide the child’s language comprehension: The first step with children with language delay is to make sure that they understand language. Do not ask them to say words that they don’t understand because they will not be able to use them in communication. Words are concepts not simple associations. It is important to remember that, in English, the same object can have more than one name (rug, carpet), and the same word may have several meanings (bill, back). Many children with learning disabilities have problems with words with multiple meanings, particularly those that change with the context. Letter is probably first learned as referring to an envelope sent or received in the mail. Later, letter will refer to a part of the alphabet. Most normally achieving children seem to abstract these word meanings more easily than those with language learning disabilities. Therefore, when children start to school, teachers and parents need to make certain they understand word meanings in new contexts. Many children will not understand the terminology used in reading instruction, and have difficulty with words representing time and space (before, after, between). They may need demonstrations to make such words meaningful.

Help the child comprehend and remember longer units of language: When children have difficulty listening to stories, it is often helpful to speak slowly, to repeat phrases or sentences, and when necessary, use pictures to illustrate the meaning. Make certain that vocabulary is clear and that directions are not too long. Show the child what to do if he or she does not understand verbal instructions.

Do not call attention to expressive language weaknesses: Language is first and foremost a form of communication. Never interrupt a child’s flow of thought when he or she is trying to communicate. Sometimes, if a child cannot recall a word, it may be helpful to give a multiple choice question (Do you want milk or juice? when the word the child seeks is juice) or to give the first sound of the word. In general, do not correct grammar or pronunciation. Make verbal interactions as pleasant and meaningful as possible. Listen to children. Make sure they have opportunities to contribute to family discussions.

Engage the child in early literacy activities: Reading to children strengthens oral language and introduces them to various forms of discourse such as stories, fairy tales and poetry. Reading signs, labels or thank you notes helps them to understand relationships between oral and written language and emphasizes meaning. If the child, because of a language disorder, does not like to be read to, parents should “read” the pictures and reduce the language level so that the child comprehends. From a single action picture one can ask countless questions about the objects, the actions, how things might taste, are they hot or cold, as well as simple inferential questions such as: How does the boy feel? How do you know this (from the look on his face)? Stop reading periodically and ask the child questions about the story. Have the child take turns asking the questions. Read labels on cans and signs. The primary goal is to ensure that children understand that reading is a meaningful act.

Phonemic awareness is related to early reading, so parents are encouraged to play listening games in which they identify objects that begin or end with a particular sound. Blending may be difficult, so ask children to point to the picture that goes with M-A-N. Rhyming games are also encouraged.

To strengthen visual processes, when parents read to children they should ask them to find letters or words that look the same.

Early writing is a part of literacy. Encourage all drawing activities and “pretend” writing. Don’t try to achieve perfect copying or production of letters. If holding a pencil is a problem, have the child draw figures in sand, make designs in finger painting etc. Have the child trace inside the boundaries of templates of objects such as apples or fish.

Encourage early mathematics and number activities: Introduce mathematics as a meaningful activity, not as a rote memory skill. Simple counting games and number songs are helpful. However, also recommended are activities which strengthen the language of math, and one-on-one correspondence. Some children with learning disabilities have difficulty counting systematically, others have difficulty with words such as more, less, few and other relational terms. Encourage children to help estimate, measure, pour water or milk, not only to learn some of the quantitative terms but to help them acquire certain visual-spatial motor skills.

Simple games with dominoes can be used to match quantities, to strengthen counting skills and one-on-one correspondence. When reading to children, have them note the number of the pages and say them. Some youngsters learn to count, but they do not learn how to read numerals.

Ordering thing according to size (seriation) is an important aspect of math which parents can encourage. Stacking pots and pans or rings on a peg according to size teaches the rudiments of seriation.

Setting the table teaches simple problem solving: How many forks do we need? Many simple board games with dice are excellent ways of teaching counting, one-on-one correspondence and turn taking.

Help the child learn to play: Some learning disabilities interfere with a child’s ability to play and acquire social skills. In order for a child to participate in groups, an adult may need to show them how to stack blocks so they do not fall, to pretend, to dig in the sand and to play simple games. We can prepare them for group activities by teaching subskills in advance. Do take time to have fun; laugh at incongruous situations, and allow for making mistakes. We all make mistakes and we can learn from them.

Encourage children to listen to music and to develop a sense of rhythm: Some children need help in listening to rhythm, beat and tempo so they can participate in group activities. Parents should clap or march with children in time to the music.

Teach simple time concepts: Many children with learning disabilities have problems understanding the language of time, the calendar, saying days of the week, months of the year, telling time and estimating time. During the early years, emphasize words such as early, later, today, tomorrow etc. Mark school days in colour on a calendar and keep a simple weather journal.

Provide structure for children with attention problems: Structure, reduction of stimulation in the environment and quiet but firm discipline will help children who have problems focussing and maintaining attention. Help with organization by breaking down complex tasks and giving an orderly sequence of activities. Develop each subskill to achieve automaticity.

Summary
Children with special needs often have special gifts such as sensitivity, perserverence, tenacity and resilience. These gifts are far more important than perfect recitation of the alphabet or copying letters. All children can make progress, but the rate of improvement varies. Try to build on the child’s strengths to build his or her sense of self-respect. Help the child realize the value of people in all walks of life as you go about daily routines. There is a place for everyone.

LDAO Comments on PPM 8: Identification of and Program Planning for Students with Learning Disabilities

On August 26, 2014, the Special Education Policy & Programs Branch (SEPPB) of the Ministry of Education announced a revised Policy/Program Memorandum No. 8: Identification of and Program Planning for Students with Learning Disabilities. previous PPM on Learning Disabilities was published in 1982 and the field of learning disabilities (LDs) has seen major advancements since that time. In 2001, through a consultation process funded by the Ministry of Education, developed an new LDAO Definition of Learning Disabilities, which was used by many school boards. In 2011, the Ministry convened a Learning Disabilities Working Group comprised of educators, internationally recognized researchers, psychologists and key stakeholders, including the Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario (LDAO), to inform the development of the revised PPM and a resource document for educators.

According to SEPPB, PPM 8 was updated to:

• reflect the advancement in research on LDs in school settings and consensus among experts on LDs,
• integrate developments in special education policies and school board practices in supporting students with LDs,
• promote consistency in the identification of students with LDs,
• support wide use of evidence-informed data based approaches to effective assessment and instructional approaches,
• promote implementation of an integrated process of assessment and instruction as described in the Ministry’s Learning for All, K-12 (2013) publication,
• eliminate deficit-based language and to ensure equity for students with LDs, and
• align the key policy directions in the PPM with other Ministry policies and initiatives.

The INTRODUCTION section of PPM 8:

• sets out requirements for school boards for the identification of and program planning for students who have LDs,
• provides the Ministry’s definition of the term learning disability, which must be used by an Identification, Placement, and Review Committee (IPRC) in the identification of students who have LDs, and
• points out that information in the “Program Planning” section on pages 4–6 also applies to any other students who demonstrate difficulties in learning and who would benefit from special education programs and/or services that are appropriate for students with LDs.

Important Points to Note:

• The revised PPM 8 uses the term learning disabilities (plural) except for the definition.
• The definition is for identification of students in the school system, which is not the same as diagnosis of learning disability(ies).

Definition of the Term Learning Disability

PPM 8 defines learning disability as one of a number of neurodevelopmental disorders that persistently and significantly has an impact on the ability to learn and use academic and other skills and that:

• affects the ability to perceive or process verbal or non-verbal information in an effective and accurate manner in students who have assessed intellectual abilities that are at least in the average range;
• results in (a) academic underachievement that is inconsistent with the intellectual abilities of the student (which are at least in the average range) and/or (b) academic achievement that can be maintained by the student only with extremely high levels of effort and/or with additional support;
• results in difficulties in the development and use of skills in one or more of the following areas: reading, writing, mathematics, and work habits and learning skills;
• may typically be associated with difficulties in one or more cognitive processes, such as:
  • phonological processing;
  • memory and attention;
  • processing speed;
  • perceptual-motor processing;
  • visual-spatial processing; and
  • executive functions (e.g., self-regulation of behaviour and emotions, planning, organizing of thoughts and activities, prioritizing, decision making)

Important Points to Note:

• The definition twice states that a student’s intellectual abilities must be in at least the average range to be identified under Learning Disability.
• The definition follows in stating that a student must demonstrate academic underachievement inconsistent with their intellectual abilities, or academic achievement that can be maintained by the student only with extremely high levels of effort and/or with additional support.
• The list of academic areas affected goes beyond reading, writing and mathematics to include work habits and learning skills.
• The definition recognizes the involvement of difficulties in cognitive processes (called psychological processes in the LDAO definition).

The definition also references co-existing conditions or disorders:

• may be associated with difficulties in social interaction (e.g., difficulty in understanding social norms or the point of view of others); with various other conditions or disorders, diagnosed or undiagnosed; or with other exceptionalities;

as well as exclusionary factors:

• is not the result of a lack of acuity in hearing and/or vision that has not been corrected; intellectual disabilities; socio-economic factors; cultural differences; lack of proficiency in the language of instruction; lack of motivation or effort; gaps in school attendance or inadequate opportunity to benefit from instruction.

PPM 8 points out that:

• many students with LDs have already shown precursors or signs of learning disabilities before they enter school – such as language delays; difficulties with rhyming, counting, or fine-motor skills; or behavioural manifestations.
• Early screening and interventions are important in determining whether a student’s difficulties in learning may be due to LDs.

This is part of an integrated process of assessment and instruction, following the Tiered approach outlined in Learning for All: A Guide to Effective Assessment and Instruction for All Students, K–12, 2013.

PPM 8 acknowledges that:

• Although LDs are more commonly evident in primary grades, they may become evident at any stage in a student’s development and that for some students, LDs may only become apparent as they progress through the later elementary or early secondary grades, when academic work and social demands increase in complexity.

An important principle, in line with the LDAO definition, is stated in PPM 8:

• Learning disabilities range in severity. Their impact may vary depending on the environmental and cognitive demands on the student, the instructional strategies employed, and the individual student’s profile and age.

PPM 8 says that a student should be considered for more in-depth assessments:

• if assessment and instruction, including early intervention strategies, have been tailored over a period of time to a student’s strengths and needs;
• if the student’s progress has been closely monitored and assessed; and
• if the student persistently demonstrates key characteristics of potential LDs

School boards are encouraged to use a multidisciplinary approach to assessing and identifying learning disabilities, and assessments typically should include the following:

• information provided by the parent(s) or guardian(s), the student, and the educator(s) (e.g., the language spoken at home, developmental history, observations in the classroom)
• educational history; medical information (e.g., information on vision, hearing, and physical condition)
• educational assessments and/or other professional assessments (e.g., psycho-educational and/or psychological assessments, other assessments by health professionals)

PPM 8 acknowledges that the effects of learning disabilities may be influenced by outside factors which can make it more difficult for the student to compensate:

• Various factors and conditions (e.g., physical limitations, gender, cultural differences) that are not aspects of learning disabilities should also be taken into account when determining whether a student has a learning disability.
• Such factors and conditions may further complicate the recognition and identification of learning disabilities, and they may contribute to or exacerbate the challenges that students with LDs may face.

The results of the assessments must inform the development of the student’s Individual Education Plan (IEP). Assessment results should inform the description of a student’s strengths and needs and be used to determine special education programs and/or services for the student.

Program Planning

PPM 8 states that the determining factor for the provision of special education programs or services is not any specific diagnosed or undiagnosed medical condition, but rather the needs of individual students based on the individual assessment of strengths and needs.

Therefore the information presented in the Program Planning section can apply not only to students who have been identified as exceptional by an IPRC, but also to any other students who demonstrate difficulties in learning and who would benefit from special education programs and/or services that are appropriate for students with learning disabilities.

Important points in the Program Planning section:

• Special education programs may be delivered through a range of placements.
• Special education programs and/or services should be made available by the school board to help students with LDs to access the Ontario curriculum expectations.
• Since students who have LDs have at least average intellectual abilities, the special education program and/or services they receive should reflect and nurture these abilities.
• Principals should ensure that parents/guardians, students (where appropriate), and relevant school personnel are invited to participate in the IEP development process.PPM 8 talks about using a tiered approach to program planning, as outlined in Learning for All: A Guide to Effective Assessment and Instruction for All Students, K–12, 2013.
• First steps may include Universal Design for Learning and Differentiated Instruction, as well as options of:
• A Tiered Approach:

• Instructional, environmental, and assessment accommodations
• Modification of learning expectations
• Alternative expectations and/or courses that are not derived from an Ontario curriculum policy document (e.g., expectations focused on social skills, self-advocacy, transition planning, study skills)

Note that modified expectations that are drawn from a lower grade level are most often not appropriate for students with LDs, especially in intermediate and secondary grades where technology supports can help students access grade level curriculum.

However, for students with LDs, a tiered approach will also involve:

• High-quality, evidence-based assessment and instruction systematically provided and responding to an individual student’s strengths and needs;

• the nature, intensity, and duration of interventions always determined on the basis of evidence gathered through frequent and systematic monitoring of the student’s progress; and
• systematic, sequential instructional approaches which use specific instructional interventions of increasing intensity to address targeted learning needs of students with LDs.In their article, Creating Opportunities for Intensive Intervention for Students with Learning Disabilities, in Teaching Exceptional Children, Nov./Dec. 2009, pp. 60 – 62, Lynn S. Fuchs and Douglas Fuchs of Vanderbilt University state the following: Transition PlanningTransitions for students with LDs occur in a variety of contexts:
• According to PPM 8, transition planning must be considered as part of the IEP development process when developing programs for students with LDs (in accordance with Ontario Regulation 181/98) and Policy/Program Memorandum No. 156 “Supporting Transitions for Students with Special Education Needs”, February 1, 2013, and Creating Pathways to Success: An Education and Career/Life Planning Program for Ontario Schools – Policy and Program Requirements, Kindergarten to Grade 12, 2013).
• When we use the term intensive intervention, we refer to two kinds of practices. The first involves tutoring programs that rely on complicated instructional routines and many hours of teaching over long periods of time. The second type of practice is the use of ongoing progress monitoring to systematically experiment with different instructional components, using the resulting progress monitoring data to inductively tailor individualized programs. Research shows that both kinds of instructional intensity can reduce severe academic failure dramatically, in some studies to as low as 2% of the general population.
• Note the use of the terms evidence-based, systematic, sequential, specific instructional interventions and increasing intensity. These are all terms that come from research on what works for students with learning disabilities.

• upon entry to school; between grades;
• from one program area or subject to another;
• changes in school supports and/or services;
• when moving from school to school or from an outside agency/facility to a school;
• from elementary to secondary school;
• and from secondary school to the next appropriate pathway (e.g., work, further education, apprenticeship).

Implementation

The requirements set out in PPM 8 took effect January 2, 2015. School boards and the Ministry are to monitor the implementation of the requirements of this memorandum through existing accountability mechanisms.

Resources:

Finally, PPM 8 points out that the field of learning disabilities is constantly evolving as new strategies, tools, and technologies become available. School boards are encouraged to make use of a growing body of knowledge about educational practices, tools, and strategies that are effective for students with learning disabilities.

PPM 8 suggests that school boards may seek community partners who can provide support for students with LDs and their families.

Note: LDAO and its local chapters can be very useful community partners.

LDA Ontario
www.LDAO.ca

The Successful Student in French Immersion

• is verbal, likes to talk
• imitates easily
• self-corrects
• experiments without fear of making mistakes
• readily accepts challenges
• shows strengths in first language
• trusts
• is usually attentive
• is willing
• has good auditory discrimination
• has good memory and good meta-cognitive awareness
• determined, convinced parents

The Unsuccessful Student in French Immersion

• is often a reluctant speaker
• imitates with difficulty
• doesn’t notice errors
• often fears making mistakes
• has a defeatist attitude
• often has poor first language skills
• mistrusts
• often is inattentive
• is often unwilling
• has poor auditory discrimination
• has poor memory and poor meta cognitive awareness
• unconvinced, unprepared parents

The most important issue is, of course, the self-image of the child.  This must be addressed to ensure good motivation levels, and constant effort from the learner.  It is also important to discuss, in realistic terms, the actual concept of learning disabilities with the students.  We should also educate the students and the teachers of our schools about learning disabilities and the learning disabled learner.  I have seen the sigh of relief of so many students when they find out that having a learning disability does not mean they are stupid, thus clearing the way for successful remediation.  Self-evaluations and close scrutiny of individuals can often uncover underlying strengths, which in turn can be used to great advantage.  These strengths have a two-fold advantage, they perform great magic in building self-image, and, the strengths can often be used to deal with some of the weaknesses.

I would like to close with a last comment and a quote from Kathie Chernoff (see below).  We often believe that all our students should be performing at the same level.  This belief is certainly not limited to the French Immersion classes.  Let’s carefully consider the learner before making any far reaching decisions.

Reprinted with permission from LDA of Manitoba

As an effective advocate for your child you need to back up and support what you know about your child with written proof and store it in a Advocacy Binder. First you have to construct the system for long-term use.

Begin with the storage organization. You may want to have a dual system which involves your computer as well, but you should start with a portable system with hard copies. The most flexible and versatile system employs a 2 to 3 inch loose-leaf binder which has colour-coded sections for easy access. Build in large envelopes to store tests, report cards, commentary of any kind, and any other relevant material sent home by the school.

Always date everything and write a brief note attached with a paper clip so you can separate it easily from the original. The note should outline the significance of the document.

Never give away original documents — always make copies if the need arises. Also, do not mark the original in any way. Keep records in chronological order from the most recent to the earliest material you have.

The Table of Contents or sections of your Advocacy Binder should include, but not be limited to, the following entries:

• Profile of your Child: This contains developmental, psychological/emotional, family and home life, medical and educational information. The purpose is to have a complete picture of your child, so that you can decide what relevant information to share.
• List of Professionals: This contains the full names of all professionals your child has had contact with, including telephone, email, fax, cell phone and address. Include therapist, doctors, counselors, and specialists of any kind and indicate the date your child was seen.
• Reports and Records Section: This section contains reports from the school as well as from professionals outside of the school. Ask the school principal to show you your child’s OSR (Ontario School Record) and duplicate the contents and transfer them to this section. Also ask to see any correspondence, records, evaluation, or any other document the school may have pertaining to your child, request copies and transfer them to this master system (you may have to pay copying fees).
• Communications log: Good practice includes maintaining a diary of each and every school contact, and summarizing what takes place at meetings. You should include samples of your own observations and impressions in this section. This allows you, just as if you were reading a personal diary, to recover memories and opinions of the events backed up with documents of the details of what transpired.

It is in this portion of the Advocacy Binder that you will post your diary notes on any meetings you attend, noting the names and positions of the attendees and the highlights of the meeting. Be sure to include the following information:

• • Who was present at the time?
  • When exactly did it occur?
  • Why did it take place?
  • Where did it happen?
  • How was it resolved?

The school will have a similar communications log as part of the IEP. You should be sent the IEP every reporting period, and you can check your communication log with the one in the IEP. If there are contacts that you think should have been reported in the IEP, ask to meet with the teacher who wrote or updated the IEP, usually the classroom or special education resource teacher.

Adapted from Partnering with Schools for Student Success LDAO online course
LDA Ontario www.LDAO.ca

Author: Dr. Susan Elliot
Source: LDAO

A great number of teachers love to read in the summer–stories of all kinds, some for pleasure, some for school. This summer I read a Grade 2 novel called Flat Stanley for a course (yes, it has its own website). In thinking about the book, all sorts of curriculum ideas quickly emerged. I could use it for science this way and integrate it into math that way. More than that, a list of students who could benefit from working with that text sprang immediately to mind. I started talking aloud about ideas for art and writing and waxed on about adapting it for gifted children. I got quite enthused about these possibilities and applications. My Grade 6 daughter put her head in her hands and said, ” All those projects! It’s scary the way a teacher’s brain works!”

I suppose she is right. What is the function of a teacher’s mind that generates ideas from a single text? What is the intuitive act that allows us to correctly connect a story with a certain young reader with specific learning needs and interests? How do we know what we know and by what process did we come to know it? What’s more, why do so many ideas come to us at the end of the day or at the end of the dock on a breezy summer afternoon?

What is Reflective Thinking?

Researchers would argue that the cognitive process of reflection is behind our “Eureka” moments and that these thoughts are in no way the musings of an idle mind. Early in the writings on reflection, John Dewey (1933) distinguished between stream of consciousness-type reflective thought and disciplined reflection that is purposeful and directed to understanding and creating meaning from a realization or interaction. Such critical reflection has tremendous power to enhance our teaching if only we could build into our day the structure to do it. It is especially important when introducing something new to our professional practice such as you are doing in this demonstration project.

Reflection has begun something of a fuzzy buzzword in education lately, perhaps because although we are not entirely clear about what it means, we are expected to do it. Donald Schon, (1987) described two levels of reflection: reflective in action and reflection on action. Reflection on action requires deeper thinking about the goals or purposes behind a lesson or task. Questioning the strategies and activities in our programmes requires reflection on the goals, principles, ethics and values that drive our daily work.

To reflect in action means to use a wide variety of information from teaching while it is occurring to develop insights into learning and to make critical improvements. Key elements for this formative assessment information may come from:

• Better use of feedback, including questioning to understand a child’s understanding and thinking- not just whether they completed the work or not.
• Better use of information on learning that can be gathered through observation of children at work, discussing the products of their work, as well as making anecdotal notes on significant changes or developments.
• Brief discussions with educational assistants or team teachers on the effectiveness of a lesson or task as it unfolds.
• Collecting data for your own small research question on some aspect of student learning or your own practice. This is termed “action research”, a word you might recall from university courses or your own professional reading.

A Warm-up for the Year Ahead

There is much more to consider in the area of developing reflective practices including ideas from teaching and research. Some of these will be explored in the October training sessions in Toronto. For now, consider trying one of the following forays into action research to help you ease into your year as a teacher at a Kindergarten demonstration site.

1. At the end of the second day of school, try to write down the names of all your students. Then, reflect and perhaps write down why you forgot some, remembered some well or remembered them all. What did you do in your teaching day that helped your learn their names and their personalities? What did the students do that helped you recall their names?
2. In the first week of school, copy a class list. Have a helper or teacher check off the name of every student you spoke with during that morning or afternoon. Think about why you talked to certain children many times and with some almost not at all. How can you use this information to teach or use time more effectively? Are you talking more to one group of children than another? What might be the reasons for this? What might you do or change in your next interactions because of this knowledge?
3. In a notebook, have an EA or make a quick list yourself, of the questions you asked during one short lesson. Review the types of questions, How many were factual recall? How many required longer, more detailed answers? How many were designed to show what the children were thinking or how they understood by the lesson?

Bibliography

Brubacher J., Case, C., & Reagan, T (1994). Becoming a Reflective Educator: How to Build a culture of inquiry in the schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process (rev. ed) Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.

Eby, J.W. (1992). Reflective Planning, Teaching and Evaluation for the Elementary School. New York: Macmillan.
Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books.

Osterman. K. (1993). Reflective Practice for Educators: Improving Schooling through Professional Development. Newbury Park, CA. Corwin Press.

Peters, J. (1991). Strategies for reflective practice. Professional and Continuing Education, 51, 83-102, San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Schon, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

C. Christina Wright, Ph.D.

National Center for Learning Disabilities

Article Outline:

I.    What constitutes a learning disability in mathematics?
II.    How is mathematics learning related to mathematics learning disabilities?
III.    How do you assess a mathematics disability?
IV.    How do you help a child who is having difficulty?
V.    Summary and References

What constitutes a learning disability in mathematics?

There is no single mathematics disability. In fact, mathematics disabilities are as varied and complex as those associated with reading. Furthermore, there are some arithmetic disabilities which can exist independent of a reading disability and others which do not. One type of learning disability affecting mathematics can stem from an individual’s difficulty processing language, another might be related to visual spatial confusion, while yet another could include trouble retaining math facts and keeping procedures in the proper order. While extremely rare, there are some learners who cannot successfully compare the lengths of two sticks and others who have almost no ability to estimate. Finally, some people experience emotional blocks so overwhelming as to preclude their ability to think responsibly and clearly when attempting math, and these students are disabled, as well.

How is mathematics learning related to mathematics learning disabilities?

Ginsburg and Baroody have identified the initial, intuitive stages of mathematics learning as the “informal” stage. A young child learns the language of magnitude (more, less; bigger, smaller) and equivalence (same) at home, long before schooling begins. In much the same way a child learns to chant the alphabet before knowing how to use it, children learn the counting sequence. This sequence is a kind of song, they discover, and it must go in a particular order.

Informal mathematics includes the ability to match one item with another item, as in setting the table. Later, sometime during the first years of formal school, the child comes to realize that five objects, no matter what size, no matter how spread out, no matter what the configuration, are still counted as five. This gradual realization, called “conservation” of number is an exciting transition and cognitive metamorphosis. It heralds the child’s growing ability to use numerals symbolically with real meaning.

A learning disability at this age may revolve around using language, manipulating objects, or judging size at a glance. Those who are visually impaired require experiences touching and judging more/less, bigger/smaller. There is a very small group of children who seem unable to visually compare length and amount.

When children enter school, they will gradually learn the format aspects of number ,i.e., adding with exchanging and trading. In the best circumstances, children begin with informal mathematics, usually with manipulatives, and gradually build to the more abstract, less inherently meaningful formal procedures.

Many children do not make this connection and characterize math as a collection of unconnected facts which must be memorized. They don’t look for patterns or meaning and can feel puzzled by classmates who seem to learn with so much less effort. In other cases, adults move in prematurely with children who are eager and excited to memorize, teaching them procedures which they can imitate but not understand. While this informal/formal gap is not, strictly speaking, a learning disability, it probably is a factor in a majority of math learning difficulties.

The pace at which children move from informal to formal arithmetic is far more gradual than most educators or parents realize. Even as adult learners we need a considerable chunk of time with the concrete, “real” aspect of a new piece of learning before we move on to making generalizations and other abstractions.

There are some children who have a language impairment, who do not easily process and understand the words and sentences they hear. Sometimes these children also have difficulty grasping the connection and the organizing hierarchy of “little” ideas and “big” ones. These children are also likely to view math as an ocean full of meaningless facts and procedures to be memorized.

Visual processing difficulties play a different sort of role in reading than they do in mathematics. In math there are fewer symbols to recognize, produce, and decode, and children can “read” math successfully even when they cannot yet read words. Children with visual/spatial perceptual difficulties may exhibit two kinds of problems. In the less severe instance, some will understand math quite clearly but be unable to express this using paper and pencil. More severe is the case where children cannot translate what they see into ideas which make sense to them.

How do you assess a mathematics disability?

One need not be a mathematics expert to evaluate a child’s ability and style of doing math.

A one-to-one mathematics interview is the best format for noting details. In the interview one focuses as intently on how the child does mathematics as on what or how correct they do it. It is essential to keep in mind that you are searching for what does work at the same time as you are probing to find out what doesn’t work.

A mathematics interview should include the use of manipulatives, i.e. coins, base ten blocks, geoboards, cuisenaire rods, and tangrams. A calculator is an important tool and can be used to uncover the difference between comprehension and computation difficulties.

The interviewer needs to remember to look at the full range of mathematical areas. In addition to computation, one should explore the child’s ability to make predictions based on understanding patterns, to sort collections of blocks or objects in a logical way, to organize space with flexibility, and to measure.

To aid in making a diagnosis which will result in useful recommendations, look carefully at strengths and weaknesses. Note whether the child talks to herself, whether she draws a picture to help her understand a situation, or whether he asks you to repeat. See if the child has a mathematics “proofreading” capacity by asking him to estimate before he computes. This is an important strength.

How do you help a child who is having difficulty?

The fundamental principle in helping a child with a disability in mathematics is to work with the child to define his or her strengths. As these strengths are acknowledged, one uses them to reconfigure what is difficult.

When learners have lost (or never had) the connection between mathematics and meaning, it is helpful to encourage them to estimate their answers before they begin computing. When children work together in small groups to solve problems, they often ask more questions, get more answers, and do more quality thinking than when they work quietly, alone.

When children have difficulty organizing their written work on a page, they often do better with graph paper. A less expensive solution is to turn lined paper sideways so that the lines serve as vertical columns. This is especially helpful for long division. The task of learning the facts can be transformed into one requiring verbal reasoning. Instead of being asked to memorize 7 + 8, one boy was asked, “How do you remember that 7 + 8 = 15?” His strategies, in this case, that 7 + 7 = 14, so 7 + 8 = 15, were practiced and reinforced and he became able to retain his facts. A general principle is that through drill and practice children will get faster at whatever they’re already doing. This technique of focusing on strategies is one which fosters a healthy sense of self reliance and diminishes the need for meaningless memorization.

When children do not have a strong language base, it is even more important for the language of explanations to be absolutely accurate (concrete) and parsimonious. In other words, elaborations confuse rather than help this type of child. Give the instructions or explanation once and give the child time and the materials to think about what has been said so that he or she can formulate a meaningful question, if necessary. Asking these children to process quickly is unrealistic and not helpful.

By contrast, the group of children who use language as a tool to keep themselves on track and to organize their thinking are often extremely quick to respond. Language is their preferred medium, after all. These children often respond well to the use of metaphor in explanations. These children are often impatient and do not understand that good thinking is not instantaneous. They need reassurance and a relaxed structure so that they go beyond the superficial quickness and do some real thinking.

Finally, those who are afraid to even attempt math are often unaware of their very real strengths. This group believes that math = computation, when in fact computation is but a small slice of mathematics. The increasing acceptance of calculators refocuses teachers and students on the real issue at hand: problem solving. Math anxious students often will take risks if their fears are acknowledged and support is provided. Students will gradually feel more powerful as they experience themselves as successful thinkers.

Summary

Mathematics learning disabilities do not often occur with clarity and simplicity. Rather, they can be combinations of difficulties which may include language processing problems, visual spatial confusion, memory and sequence difficulties, and/or unusually high anxiety. With the awareness that math understanding is actively constructed by each learner, we can intervene in this process to advocate for or provide experience with manipulatives, time for exploration, discussion where the “right” answer is irrelevant, careful and accurate language, access to helpful technologies, and understanding and support.

Reprinted with permission from LDOnline at www.ldonline.org

Barbara Foorman, Jack Fletcher, and David Francis

Center for Academic and Reading Skills (CARS)

Important Research Findings

1. Reading problems occur primarily at the level of the single word.
2. Decoding problems in reading are primarily associated with problems segmenting words and syllables into phonemes. This is true in virtually all poor readers, including children, adolescents, and adults at all levels of IQ and in socially disadvantaged children and adults. Reading is alphabetic, which means that for languages like English and Spanish the code is in the alphabet. The code is always based on sounds and how sounds map onto print, even in languages that are not alphabetic, like Chinese. Chinese is logographic, but the radicals represent information relevant to sounds.

Once a child has learned how sound structures relates to print, he or she has become a proficient decoder. However, in order to become an efficient decoder, the decoding process must become fast and accurate. Once decoding is efficient, attention and memory processes are freed for comprehension monitoring.

The majority of children seem to become proficient decoders regardless of how they are taught. However, for at least 30% of children the decoding process is not straightforward and must be taught.

3. Reading problems occur as part of a natural, unbroken continuum of ability. What causes good reading also causes poor reading. Nonetheless,

4. At least 10 million children in the United States are poor readers.

5. The prevalence is 17% of school-aged children depending on how poor reading is defined and where it is studied.

6. Reading problems occur with equal frequency in boys and girls; schools identify four times more boys than girls, largely on the basis of behavioral, not learning, characteristics. Unfortunately, the magnitude of the reading problem is increasing.

7. Special education figures show that less than 25% of children in special education were identified as learning disabled before 1980; by 1993, this figure increased to over 50%.

8. Of all children identified as learning disabled in schools, 80% are primarily impaired in reading; 90% of these children have problems with the development of decoding skills.

9. The assumption is sometimes made that children will grow out of their reading problem with the passage of time. However, research shows that 74% of children who are poor readers in the third grade remain poor readers in the ninth grade.

10. But won’t comprehension make up for poor decoding? No, because comprehension depends on decoding and other skills. Slow, inaccurate decoding is the best predictor of poor reading comprehension.

11. There are multiple causes of poor reading. Regardless of the cause, the primary problems occur at the level of the single word.

Causes of Poor Reading

1. Neurological: Brain metabolism when doing reading tasks involving sounds of words, such as whether they rhyme, is different in good and poor readers. The problem is not brain structure, but brain function. The question is whether improved reading results in changes in brain function.

2. Familial: Reading problems run in families and have a genetic component, but several genes are involved and the penetration is low. This means that the environment also has significant influence on reading outcomes. For example, adults who read poorly are less likely to read to their children. Instructional factors are more critical for children where there is a family history of poor reading.

3. Social Disadvantage/Cultural: Print exposure, parental literacy, laptime reading to the child are clearly important. The influence is somewhat overestimated because intervention studies are remarkably successful in socially disadvantaged populations.

4. Instructional: The influence of instructional factors is underestimated, as discussed below. What is important is that the skills that lead to poor reading can be taught early in school, in kindergarten and in grades 1 and 2. For many children these skills must be taught explicitly for several years.

Important Intervention Findings

1. Direct instruction in decoding skills emphasizing the alphabetic code results in more favourable outcomes than does a context-emphasis or embedded approach. (all NICHD studies)

2. The type of direct instruction alphabetic program is less important than the intensity, duration, and teacher training/monitoring so long as the program is structured and explicit. (Florida State University)

3. Over 90% of children reading below the 15th percentile at the beginning of first grade read at or above grade level by the end of the first grade with appropriate intervention. (SUNYAlbany)

4. Fifteen minutes of instruction in the alphabetic code as part of a standard kindergarten curriculum led to significant gains in phonological analysis skills relative to children in the same curriculum who did not receive this training. Facilitation of reading ability occurred only if the program was continued into subsequent school years. (University of Houston)

5. Comparisons of direct instruction phonics, embedded phonics, and two context- emphasis approaches in socially disadvantaged (Title 1) first and second graders showed that only the direct instruction approach was associated with average levels of reading proficiency after one school year of intervention. Curriculum effects outweighed effects of tutoring and variability across teachers. In fact, many children in the context- based approaches showed no gains. (University of Houston)

6. Decoding and phonological analysis skills are necessary but not sufficient skills for successful reading. They are not the (w)hole story. Once you can decode, you must be able to decode rapidly words that represent the orthographic elements of English (e.g., morphological units and writing conventions). Comprehension processes are separable and must also be taught. Print awareness, immersion in literacy, and reading to children also account for variability in reading outcomes, but they are less robust predictors of longterm outcomes relative to single word skills.

Necessary & Sufficient Conditions for Learning to Read

1. Phonological Awareness: Sensitivity to the sound structure (rather than the meaning) of speech

2. Phonemic Awareness: The ability to deal explicitly and segmentally with sound units smaller than the syllable (i.e., phonemes)

3. Alphabetic Principle: The insight that written words are composed of letters of the alphabet that are intentionally and conventionally related to segments of spoken words

4. Orthographic Awareness: Sensitivity to the structure of the writing system (spelling patterns, orthographic rules, inflectional and derivational morphology, etymology)

5. Comprehensive Monitoring Strategies: Strategies that help students attend to and remember what they read

About the authors: Dr. Barbara Foorman, professor of education psychology, is the principal investigator for the University of Houston Learning Disabilities Intervention Project at the University of Houston in Houston, TX. Dr. Jack Fletcher from the University of Texas Medical School and Dr. Davis Francis from the University of Houston are also members of the Houston Project group. The Houston Research Group is one of the research programs supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). The NICHD Learning Disability Research Network was established to identify critical research needs in LD and to implement comprehensive studies to address issues relevant to identification, prevention, etiology, and treatment.

Reprinted with permission from LDOnline at www.ldonline.org

Author: Edwin S. Ellis
Source: Reprinted, with permission, from Teaching Adolescents with Learning Disabilities Second Edition

The paraphrasing strategy (Schumaker, Deshler, & Denton, 1984) has been demonstrated to increase significantly the reading comprehension skills of adolescents with LD. Although the strategy contains only three major steps (read a paragraph, ask yourself questions about the main idea and details, put the main idea and details into your own words), and seems to be a simple strategy to teach, teachers need to know that it is deceptively more complex than the three steps suggest.

STAGE 1: Pretest
To pretest the student, teachers collect two types of information in the form of permanent products: product measures and process measures.
Product measures concern the actual level of the student’s comprehension of specific reading passages. Thus, product measures are attained by evaluating the student’s comprehension of main ideas and details presented in the previously read passage. A rough estimate of comprehension can be attained by having students respond to a set of written comprehension questions that address the content read by the student.
Process measures concern how well students are able to follow the strategic process to be taught. Process measures of paraphrasing ability are determined in part by evaluating students’ verbalizations about each paragraph in relation to performance criteria. The performance criteria for evaluating students’ paraphrases developed by Schumaker, Deshler, and Denton (1984) are:

• Must be in the student’s own words
• Must contain only one main idea per paragraph
• Must contain two details
• Information in paraphrase is meaningful
• Complete sentence
• Information is new

To attain this measure, students are asked to read text passages from mainstream textbooks written at their grade-placement level. Each passage should contain a minimum of five paragraphs. Students are asked to read one paragraph at a time silently, to turn on a tape recorder, then to tell the recorder what the main idea and two details were for the paragraph just read, and finally to turn off the recorder. This process is repeated for each subsequent paragraph in the passage. Later these statements can be analyzed and compared to the performance criteria to produce a “paraphrasing score.”

Teachers should interpret both the product and process scores with caution. Being able to discriminate correctly among a set of possible main ideas on multiple-choice questions provides only the most rudimentary indicator of comprehension. Likewise, analyzing what students say during their paraphrases reveals only the result of their cognition and tells little about what students actually are thinking during the reading process. For example, it does not tell us how well students are able to activate and use their prior knowledge, to what extent they form predictions about their reading and modify them as they learn more about the passage, how well they monitor their comprehension, how well they are synthesizing the specific information with the overall topic of study, and so forth. These kinds of insights can come only from the dialogue between the student and adult associated with the reciprocal teaching (RT) model. Thus, teachers should also read with students and converse with them about their thinking to informally gain insight into this domain.

STAGE 2: Describe The Paraphrasing Strategy
During this stage the teacher describes the situations and setting students encounter in which being able to identify main ideas and important details from reading materials will help them attain their goals. Students have to understand why and when expending the mental energy to paraphrase main ideas is important, as well as when and under what circumstances a reader should not bother. After listing and describing situations and reading materials in which paraphrasing is desirable, students should be encouraged to identify and discuss others as well. The teacher also will describe the steps of the strategy, provide a rationale for the steps, and discuss how the steps are to be used to cue important thinking behaviors when reading. Thus, during this stage, the teacher already will have begun to discuss the parameters of generalization and the process of enabling students to understand what the strategy is and how it works. Although these discussions begin during the Describe stage, the teacher should continue to discuss and explore related ideas throughout the instructional sequence.

STAGE 3: Model The Paraphrasing Strategy
During this stage the teacher performs the paraphrasing strategy using think-aloud, dialectal, and scaffolding techniques. The teacher’s initial modeling of the strategy should be simple and straightforward. It should focus mainly on the surface features of the strategy (e.g., self-cueing performance of the strategy steps). Subsequent modeling of the strategy will involve the students gradually (e.g., as the teacher reads a passage aloud, students tell him or her what to do, and the teacher does it) and gradually will reveal to students more sophisticated cognitive processes (e.g., activating prior knowledge, generating different types of questions, monitoring comprehension and initiating comprehension repair strategies, and so forth). Likewise, teacher modeling should become dialectal (done in collaboration with students). Even though the teacher’s modeling of the strategy begins in this stage, the teacher should continue to model the strategy as necessary throughout the remainder of the instructional sequence. These models should focus increasingly on the cognitive processes associated with performing the strategy and less on the overt strategy steps.

STAGE 4: Verbally Elaborate and Rehearse
This stage is intended to help students develop an in-depth understanding of the overt and covert features of the strategy. Having students use their own language to describe these processes facilitates understanding and comprehension. Elaboration activities such as asking students to compare steps or processes associated with the paraphrasing strategy to strategies or processes they use already will facilitate understanding. Likewise, the more students know what is expected of them, the more likely they will be to meet that expectation. Thus, students also should elaborate on the critical features of an effec-tive paraphrase presented earlier.

STAGE 5: Practice Acquisition
The main purpose of this stage is to enable students to acquire skills for paraphrasing main ideas and relevant details from paragraphs they have read. Because this form of reading requires most students to engage in different, unfamiliar ways of thinking dur-ing the reading process, the reading materials that students use are controlled for difficulty. Essentially, reading materials should be relatively easy for students to read. Ellis and Graves (1990) concluded that an ideal level to begin practicing the paraphrasing strategy would be material that students can read already at a rate of 100 to 135 words per minute while maintaining a 97% accuracy in decoding. Practically speaking, these materials usually are a grade level below their tested ability level.

During acquisition practice, scaffolded and dialogic instruction is used extensively and then is faded gradually as students become confident and competent at paraphrasing. As students master the skill on easier reading materials, they are presented gradually with ever more challenging text to read so the material begins to approximate the material that the students encounter normally in general classes.

As students begin reading materials that contain numerous words that cannot be de-coded or have unknown meanings, the effectiveness of the paraphrasing strategy diminishes. Thus, the teacher’s goal should be to enable students to paraphrase effectively and efficiently any reading material they can decode with relative ease.

STAGE 6: Undertake Advance Practice
Learning to apply the paraphrasing strategy to a host of different reading materials under conditions where instructional support is still available is the distinguishing feature of advanced practice. Scaffolded and dialogic instruction is used as needed when students attempt to use the strategy with a variety of information sources that have not been controlled for difficulty (e.g., mainstream textbooks, encyclopedias, magazines, news-papers). The teacher’s role during this stage is to help students analyze reading materials to determine whether the strategy should be applied, to help students determine goals for reading the material, and to anticipate how the strategy can be used and modified to meet these goals. For example, the goals for textbook reading might be to answer study guide questions. Here the teacher’s role is to help students understand how the paraphrasing strategy can be used to meet this requirement. At other times the goal might be to glean information from a magazine article to compose an oral social studies report. Here the teacher’s role would be to help students understand how they can modify the strategy to meet this task requirement. Thus, during advanced practice, the teacher must provide students with a variety of reading tasks that simulate those that students encounter in their mainstream classes.

STAGE 7: Posttest and Celebrate
The purpose of this stage is (a) to ensure that students can perform the strategy effec-tively and efficiently, and (b) to officially recognize attainment of a milestone in learn-ing the strategy. The posttest can be designed similar to that used during the pretest. Students then can compare their skills prior to learning the strategy with their present levels. Likewise, students appreciate teachers’ celebrating with them the completion of the first major phase of learning the strategy (acquisition). Last, teachers should note that efforts now will be directed toward generalizing the strategy in earnest.

STAGE 8: Generalize
Although the focus of this stage is on facilitating generalization of the paraphrasing strategy, all of the previous instruction should have been couched in terms of generalization. Students should know from the first day of instruction that the goal of strategy instruction is generalization. Teachers should have been encouraging students to experiment with generalizing the strategy and sharing the results and their perceptions with the teacher and other students. Instruction during this stage differs only in that generalization now is targeted intensively and extensively.

To ensure generalization, the teacher should engage in four types of generalization activities: orientation, activation, adaptation, and maintenance. Orientation activities consist primarily of efforts to make students highly cognizant of the need to generalize the strategy, to communicate the expectation that they do so, and to ensure students are aware of the situations and circumstances in which the reading strategy can be used.

During activation activities the teacher should review with students situations where the strategy is applicable, discuss using the strategy flexibly, and discuss cues that may signal appropriate times to apply the strategy. The objective is to ensure that students begin engaging in generalization behaviors and that they receive feedback on their efforts to use the strategy independently. Students are given (a) specific assignments to use the strategy in settings other than the one in which the strategy was learned originally, and (b) nonspecific assignments in which they are required to recognize appropriate opportunities to use the reading strategy independently and apply it to meet personal goals. Following these assignments, the teacher should conduct debriefings with students to discuss how they used the strategy (e.g., difficulties encountered decisions made about using it, any adaptations), to check their comprehension of the text to which the strategy was applied, and to provide them with feedback regarding their use of generalization.

Adaptation activities are designed to facilitate student adaptation of the strategy to other problem domains. For example, during these activities students might practice using the paraphrasing strategy as a class participation strategy to become more involved in discussions.

Maintenance activities are designed to ensure that students maintain their knowl-edge of what the strategy is, how it is performed, and when it should be used. Periodic review sessions (e.g., every 2 weeks) are recommended.

Note: For in-depth training in how to teach the paraphrasing reading strategy, teacher manuals, videotapes, and other instructional resources for this intervention, contact the University of Kansas Center for Research in Learning.

The Language Experience

by Cecile L. Stein, Ph.D.

The Language System

To understand language and the language system, try to picture a ladder. Imagine that you are climbing this ladder until you reach the top where you enter a large place filled with every bit of knowledge you have acquired throughout your life.  This repository contains facts about people, events and places, and their interrelationships.  We understand the meaning of language through the filter of our experiences.

Let the rungs on the ladder represent the different components of the language system. The first rung on which you step represents the sounds of the language you speak (called phonology).  In order to understand and speak your language, you must be able to arrange these sounds into meaningful units, so at the second rung, you recognize that these sounds have formed words.

You’ve collected many words now, but the message isn’t meaningful enough until you’ve climbed to the third rung where the syntactic system organizes the words into sentences. At the fourth rung, you’ve put the message together, and you can now enter this place which contains your world knowledge.  It is here that you truly understand what the message means to you.  Here, your accumulation of world knowledge gives the message its true meaning with all the colour, shading and subtleties you interpret the message to mean.  For example, having heard the sentence It’s cold in this room, you may understand the message to mean a statement of fact or an indirect request from the speaker to close the window.

Identifying the Deficit

Where is the language problem for the individual with a learning disability (LD)? That depends. The problem could be in one, two or all the areas in the language system.  This child may, therefore, have difficulty primarily in discriminating between sounds when listening or in linking sounds to letters. The resulting problem may be a decoding deficit.

Other youngsters may have difficulty at the vocabulary level, the second rung on the ladder. They have difficulty acquiring new words.  Their vocabulary is limited which makes reading comprehension a struggle when text has many unknown words.  In addition, expressing ideas may be laborious because of the lack of an available store of words.

Closely related to this vocabulary weakness are word finding problems, which occur frequently in the language LD (LLD) population. Similar to the youngster with an insufficient expressive vocabulary, the child with word finding problems (also called word retrieval problems or anomia) has difficulty rapidly searching for the right words to express thoughts.  The results of this problem vary.  Some youngsters may circumlocute or beat around the bush to explain ideas.  This strategy often creates such vague and loose discourse that the listener is often unsure of the child’s message.  Another problem here is that the speaker may even lose his focus as he mentally wanders, trying to find the right words. Some youngsters with word finding problems do not circumlocute, but give up the search for words. They are often the ones who say I don’t know or Forget it.  They may speak less and are, consequently, uninformative.

Imagine LLD children in a social studies class where recalling names, places and key ideas are required. These children may have difficulty retrieving the information fully on a test, or when responding to the teacher’s questions in class. The answers they give may be tangential because they have problems stating the main point.

Children with difficulty at the syntactic level (rung three) have problems understanding the precise meaning of a sentence or paragraph (whether spoken or written). Without the syntactic system in place, that is understanding who did what to whom, the listener makes guesses about the message.  Sometimes the guesses are good ones because the child has gone straight to his knowledge of the world to make the interpretation.  For example, you need syntactic knowledge to understand  a sentence such as: “The truck was hit by the car.”, since the subject is at the end of the sentence.  In English, the subject is usually in the beginning.

You can use your world knowledge instead of syntax to understand The baby was fed by the mommy because you know that mommies usually feed babies, not the other way round.  Children with syntactic deficits try to use their world knowledge to understand language which is syntactically complex:  but that is guessing at meaning.  Their wrong guesses are highly noticeable. For example, some children might be confused as to who was hurrying home in the sentence Hurrying home from the movies, we found Roberta had left a note on the table.

Imagine the problems youngsters with syntactic deficits face when reading literature and social studies texts. How does this youngster get at the information as the text becomes more syntactically complex and the amount of information to wad through increases?

Some LLD youngsters may actually do fairly well, understanding syntactic complexity, but have more trouble getting the point of the message. Making inferences and understanding the main idea involves using world knowledge, and some people are better at literal comprehension than making inferences and understanding figurative language.  These youngsters may be the ones who do not understand jokes, sarcasm, slang, puns and idioms such as I couldn’t return your call because I was all tied up at work today.

Many LLD youngsters have processing problems. They have difficulty remembering long sentences or sentences containing too much information. Following directions and retaining the details or facts in a story are affected. Some children have difficulty enjoying stories read to them because they haven’t retained enough information or have become confused by too many characters and events.

In spite of these language problems, some children manage to have wonderful social lives. They enjoy people and people seek them out.  Others, however, begin to have social problems because they have trouble keeping up with the rapid flow of conversation, introducing and maintaining topics in a conversation.  Feeling unable to keep up, these youngsters exclude themselves from groups or become excluded. Remediation

The Language-Based Curriculum

How do we address these problems, particularly when in any given class, various language problems co-exist? Many youngsters receive language therapy from speech-language professionals. However, there are principles which can be applied to all youngsters whether or not they receive individual language therapy.  These principles relate to the school’s curriculum, and parent-child language interactions.

The purpose of the Language-Based Curriculum is to bring the principles of communication and language knowledge into the classroom. Here, both teacher and student are made aware of their responsibilities as communicators in the transmission and learning of the academic curriculum.  The Windward School curriculum is an example of a total program where language skills are taught and reinforced throughout the curriculum.  Teachers and language specialists work together to bring about this goal.

First, the LD child needs to understand what he hears and reads. To reach that goal, the school transmits and teaches explicitly the rules of the language which the non-disabled child automatically acquires.  For example, the children are taught  to distinguish a grammatical from an ungrammatical sentence, and correct the ungrammatical one.  They must learn whether what they say, write or read makes sense. Children without language impairments develop this knowledge with greater ease.  They understand what they hear and read more efficiently.

Teaching the rules of the language improves the student’s reading comprehension because it provides the foundation for precise sentence understanding. However, to achieve true reading comprehension, the LD youngster must also be taught to use his world knowledge, develop inferential skills and learn the elements of what is called story grammar.

The elements of story grammar, which include the main idea, characters, events and time, challenge the LD reader as the story progresses from paragraph to paragraph. When a LD child says that he does not understand what he is reading, the teacher must determine where within the language system he got lost, and find him strategies to get back on track.

Second, the LLD child needs to develop communication skills. He must be taught to recognize effective from non-effective communication, whether the listener understands his message and how to paraphrase when the first attempt fails to communicate.

Third, the LLD child needs to learn the language skills and strategies necessary for classroom success. For example, in a classroom, the LLD child must learn to ask questions about concepts being taught.  He needs to recognize and respond when the language has confused him and ask for clarification.  In a classroom conversation, the LLD child needs to be able to follow the focus of the teacher’s lesson in order to make his personal contribution.  All of these skills are important for social communication as well.

Teachers utilize specific questioning and responding procedures to maximize the comprehension and retention of the material taught. They speak at a slower rate to permit processing of information.  They recognize when students are having communications breakdowns and utilize procedures to help the student shape and state his utterances.  Teachers provide language organizing strategies for written expression.

Parent-Child Responsibilities

The language interaction between parent and child is critical to the early development of communication skills. The LLD child benefits, however, from special parental speaking strategies.

To that end, it is important for parents to be able to size up the home communication environment. For example, do family members speak to the LLD child on the run?  Is the speech rate too rapid for the child to be able to process information?  Are there opportunities to make inferences and to hear inferences from others?

Face-to-face speaking is important for the child with attention and/or auditory processing problems. Pacing the flow of conversation so that the LLD youngster has an opportunity to organize thoughts and find the appropriate words to express ideas, revise and repair utterances is important as well.  Asking the youngster for his opinions gives him a chance to take on new speaker responsibilities.

Parents can encourage appropriate social language skills which will benefit the child outside the home. Encouraging turn-taking behaviour and correctly reading and responding to body language is part of social language skills development.

In conclusion, the development and learning of language skills is an exciting process to observe as it emerges in our children. The LLD child painstakingly learns these skills which are so naturally acquired by the non-LD child.  Their mastery breeds success.  Once the process of language awareness has begun, learning has begun.

Helping Students who Struggle to Write

Regina G. Richards, M.A.

“Eli shook himself to stop daydreaming …. Writing was definitely the worst task of all. It was just way too hard to remember all the things he needed, like periods and capital letters. And then it was almost impossible to think about how to spell words when he was busy trying to think about the story.” (1)

There are many reasons students hate to write, the primary of which is that writing is a slow and laborious process. The purpose of this article is to provide suggestions to help students, with emphasis on compensations. For further information on diagnostic issues, precise remedial suggestions, or the processing problems related to dyslexia and dysgraphia, the reader is referred to the references provided at the end.

Students benefit when they compensate for writing problems because so often writing struggles interfere with learning and prevent them from fully demonstrating what they have learned. Compensating helps them bypass the problem area and still accomplish the goal of the activity. Some example classroom compensations include the following:

Staging: dividing the task into smaller units and performing each subtask independently. Some students become overwhelmed because tasks appear to be too large or have too many steps. Staging helps them focus on each subtask with greater concentration and an emphasis on quality.

• Decreasing quantity: allowing the student to perform fewer math problems, write fewer sentences, or write a shorter story. Some students work so hard for each problem that they find it very difficult to perform an entire assignment or even to concentrate on the concept. Students with writing difficulties sometimes learn more from fewer problems because their concentration is more efficient. Allowing for shorter assignments encourages the student to focus on quality rather than quantity, thus often decreasing the urge to rush through.

• Increasing time: providing the student with more time to finish his work. Many times a student may be capable of completing the work, but unable to do so in the same amount of time as his peers. The extra time decreases the tendency for rushing through and can increase the focus on quality.

• Copying: reducing or eliminating copying demands, such as copying from the chalkboard, or even copying from another paper. Sometimes students with writing difficulties make multiple mistakes when copying information and it is important to insure that they have access to the correct information.

• Providing structure for math: using large graph paper or looseleaf paper turned sideways helps the student alignment numbers properly in multi-step math problems. Some students benefit from having their math problems machine copied in enlarged format with additional white space, as this also prevents errors in copying the problem.

• Adjusting writing format: allowing each student to choose the format that is most comfortable. Some students perform better in manuscript whereas other students perform better using cursive. Allowing work to be completed by computer word processing helps the student use staging more efficiently while also bypassing the mechanical difficulties of letter form and space.

• Spelling: allowing for misspelling on in-class assignments. Hold students responsible for correct spelling on final drafts, encouraging use of a phonics-based spell checker, such as one of the Franklin Electronic Resources® with a speaking component.(2)

CAUTION: It is unfair and counterproductive to make a student with writing problems stay in for recess to finish work. These children need more movement time, not less.

Keyboarding

The most efficient compensation for any student who struggles with basic letter form and use of spaces is to develop efficient word processing skills. Parents and teachers need to be aware; however, that it is very difficult to go through life totally avoiding use of paper and pencil and, consequently, it is important for each student to develop at least some basic handwriting skills. Specific multisensory strategies designed for dysgraphic students are useful for any student who needs help developing appropriate letter form and automatic motor movements. Specific remedial strategies that incorporate air writing, use of the vertical plane (chalkboard), simultaneous verbal cues, and reinforcement with tactile input, are most effective.(3)

In today’s society, keyboarding skills are valuable for all students, but are particularly essential for the student who struggles with writing and/or spelling difficulties. Students are able to learn keyboarding skills at a very young age. However, keyboarding development requires practice and many students complain that the practice is especially boring. This can be a problem because consistency and frequency of practice are very important in developing automaticity. Consequently, it is useful to have the student practice keyboarding on a daily basis, but only for very short period of time each day. In early elementary, the student may practice only five to ten minutes a night. In upper elementary, the practice sessions maybe 10 to 15 minutes a night. If the student is just beginning to learn keyboarding as a teenager, it may be necessary to extend the practice sessions to 15 to 20 minutes a night. The consistency of the practice is critical.

Many fun and efficient software programs are available to help students learn appropriate keyboarding. Access to a variety of programs helps decrease boredom and allows for choice, as the student may select different software each night. Alternate programs have also been developed which teach keyboarding skills based on the alphabetical sequence. One such program starts with the left hand and uses a poem which begins, “little finger a, reach for b, same finger c, d, e. (4)

Initially, as the student is learning, correct finger should not be required when he is typing for content, as this greatly increases the demands on active working memory. For most students, the habits developed during typing practice will eventually integrate with the finger used while concentrating on ideation and content.

Once a student learns word processing skills, she will have the option of progressing to use of voice-activated software, such as Dragon® NaturallySpeaking® (5) Such software allows the student to dictate into a microphone without the need for direct typing on the keyboard. However, this is a higher level skill which is much more efficient once the student knows and understands basic word processing and writing skills. Clear enunciation, lack of slurring words, and use of precise preplanning and organization are critical for success with voice-activated programs.

Note-taking

Many students with writing struggles are slow and/or inefficient when taking notes. This is particularly laborious for high school and college-age students. While a laptop computer can be efficient, it can be cumbersome to carry around. Also, it is expensive to fix or replace a vandalized, dropped, or otherwise broken computer. A successful alternative that has become popular with some older students is the use of a personal digital assistant such as the PalmPilot® series or the Visor Handspring® series. These units are quite small (palm size) and easy to transport in a backpack. A nearly standard size keyboard can be attached which greatly facilitates typing and, hence, note- taking. This is especially useful for recording homework assignments and “to do” lists. For note-taking during a lecture, many students still require the assistance of a note-taker, even if the complete notes are only used as a backup.

Spelling

Many students who struggle with writing also have difficulties with spelling. Even if they are able to spell correctly on a weekly spelling test, when they’re thinking of content it may be very difficult to also think of the correct spelling of the words they want. Some students then simplify their word usage. Other students just include the incorrectly spelled word.

When such students use a staging approach, they can first focus on pre-organization and then writing (or typing) a draft. A next step would be to go back and work on fixing misspelled words. Sometimes the spell checker on a computer does not help the student because the misspelled word is not close enough to correct. In such situations, the student should be taught to develop strong phonetic analysis skills so that she can learn to spell words phonetically, the way they sound. Then the student will be able to utilize technology such as one of the Franklin® Electronic Resources.(6) In our office, the Language Master 6000 has been found to be very appropriate because of its large font size and speech clarity.

Hand fatigue

A common complaint of students who struggle to write is that their hand gets tired when writing. This can be due to a variety of factors. Some of the most common factors are inappropriate grip, a very tight pencil grip, or inefficient writing posture. There are many efficient grippers that can be used with the pencil or pen to enhance the efficiency of the students grasp on the pencil. One example, the large Pencil Grip™, is ergonomically developed to work with the natural physiology of the hand to gently place fingers in the proper position for gripping!(7)

Students can be helped to decrease hand fatigue by performing warm-up activities before writing in the middle of the task. Such activities help the student manipulate and relax muscles in the writing hand. Some examples include:

• Rubbing palms of hands together
• Shaking hands slightly though firmly
• Clasping hands together and stretching upwards

For older students who need to take a large number of notes during a class, dividing their paper in half and writing on only one half the time helps reduce the drag of the writing instrument across the paper. This too will reduce writing fatigue.

Caution for teachers

One of the best compensations for a student who struggles with writing is to have a teacher that understands. For some students it is not possible to be neat while also focusing on content. Some students cannot focus on both neatness and use of writing mechanics at the same time. This is why a staging approach is critical. Requiring concentration on only one or two aspects at a time will help reduce the overload for a student.

In the quote below, an elementary school student explains his frustration caused by his struggles in trying to be neat while also thinking.

“So Eli figured it was easier to write just a few sentences. That didn’t hurt his hand so much either. His teachers complained, but Eli kept writing very short stories. After all, teachers didn’t understand what it was like to struggle and struggle to write, and still have the paper turn out sloppy and full of mistakes. They always told him how messy his papers were. They just couldn’t understand how hard he tried. No matter how carefully he worked, the words didn’t look like they were supposed to. Sometimes he knew how he wanted the words to look, but they just didn’t turn out that way.”(8)

Reprinted with permission from LDOnline at www.ldonline.org

Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario

Tel: (416) 929-4311 Web: www.ldao.ca

Resources

Behrman, Carol H. Write! Write! Write! Ready-to-use writing process activities for grades 4-8

(www. amazon. com)

Polacco, Patricia. Thank You, Mr. Talker (www. amazon. com)

Project Read: Written Expression Modules. Language Circle Enterprises, MN: 1993.

Richards, Regina. When Writing’s a Problem (www.retctrpress.com)

Levine, Melvin. Keeping A Head in School (www. amazon. com)

Levine, Melvin. Educational Care: A System for Understanding and Helping Children With Learning Problems at Home and at School (www. amazon. com)

Zachman, Linda; Barrett, Mark Huisingh, Rosemary; Blagden, Carolyn; Orman, Jane. 125 Ways to Be a Better Thinker: A program for improving creative thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, critical thinking (7th-12th grade) (www.linguisystems.com)

References

1. Richards, Regina and Ell, The Boy Who Hated to Write: Understanding Dysgraphia, pages 2-3 (www.amazon.com)

2. Franklin Electronic Resources (www.Franklin.com) and (www.amazon.com)

3. Richards, Regina, The Source for Dyslexia and Dysgraphia (www.linguisystems.com)

4. King, Dianna, Keyboarding Skills (www.epsbooks.com)

5. Dragon® Naturally Speaking (www.amazon. com)

6. Franklin, ibid.

7. The Pencil Grip (www.thepencilgrip.com)

8. Richards, ibid.

In certain cases, rather than attempting to correct a disability through remedial instruction, it may be more appropriate to use alternative means of instruction.  For children with learning disabilities who are gifted and who cannot read on a level consistent with their abilities, tapes, lectures, audio-visual materials, etc., may be more suitable and highly effective as compared to the use of restrictive remedial programs.  Many times, the area of disability cannot be corrected and the remedial program will merely compound a child’s feelings of frustration and failure.

It would appear, then, that the most productive program would be one in which the child with learning disabilities who is gifted would receive needed skills instruction in those areas which can be improved and would receive appropriate counselling in order to understand that such seemingly tedious programming is necessary in order to enable him/her to function at a higher level.  The child would be placed in a program aimed at developing the gifted potential in those areas in which he/she can function successfully.

Reprinted with permission from LDA Newsbriefs

LDA America, 4156 Library Road, Pittsburgh, PA  15234

Author: Elisabeth Bigwin
Source: reprinted with permission

This summary and discussion is based on research that I have conducted, and on my work as a teacher in a First Nations community and as an Education Advisor to six First Nations groups. This work by no means represents a political position nor is it representative of all First Nations people.

Philosophy of Education

• Prepares for life from a holistic viewpoint
• Incorporates the principles of wholeness, integration, respect for the spiritual and natural world, and balance
• Reflects values of self reliance, respect for personal freedom, generosity, respect for nature and wisdom
• Education should prepare children to gain the necessary skills for successful living and to contribute to the community
• Education should reinforce the student’s cultural identity

Role of Culture

• Students function more successfully when cultural values are reinforced and where there is a strong self-identity
• The approach to education must become more culturally appropriate; teaching methods should be more conceptual and less analytical; dialogue with less lecturing; creative thinking with less memory work; hands-on experiential methods as opposed to just book learning
• Each language and culture group is unique so educators need to understand the local culture group (i.e. northern Ojibway needs are defined very differently from southern Ojibway)

Language

We talk about the importance of language but I wonder if we fully understand the intrinsic value. In the Native languages, many words represent concepts and, therefore, word for word translation is impossible. (Tafoya, 1995; Cordero, 1995; Leavitt, 1995) Tafoya’s example of using the eagle story illustrates this idea. “In the Sahaptin language, Xaiyama means a golden eagle; there is a different word for the bald eagle, but with Xaiyama the yai suffix denotes what we call legend language. So it is the idea of the concept, the abstraction, the spirit of the eagle rather than the eagle itself” (page 24). This distinction is difficult to understand. Ojibway is much the same. More than word for word translation is required to extract meaning. There are limitations to communicating in English where the structure does not allow for the expression of certain ideas.

Cordero talks about the Native languages as being to critical to overall educational success. “The ability to preserve Native cultures depends on native students using native languages, because these languages, as complex as they are, convey complex cultural meanings. The use—of metaphor, affixes, suffixes and prefixes in Native languages is part of the cultural definition of being human” (page 34). Leavitt discusses differences between Native languages and English. In Native languages, a shape is not described in an isolated way, as is the case when we teach geometry, for example, in an English language setting. In the Native languages, description of shapes is always applied as the property of an object. The actual word would be the noun with an added part used to depict the idea. There would not be a separate word used such as “square”. Natural phenomena too are not translatable word for word. The speaker sees words such as “wind” and “moon” as actions. All this implies that there is a different way of knowing in the Native world. Approaches to knowledge and teaching where Native students are involved means understanding these differences.

Sacred Circle

To “know” through an aboriginal worldview is to develop a fundamental understanding of the Sacred Circle, through which we learn the reality of our being. For all life moves in a circle, in recurring patterns such as that of the seasons and cycles of birth to death. The Sacred Circle symbol represents the four directions, which in turn represent the four races, the four aspects of humanness, the four cycles of life, the four elements and the four seasons. When applied to education, the Sacred Circle provides a framework through which we move to a sense of wholeness, interdependence and balance. Once upon a time, educational goals for youth were meant to perpetuate the knowledge that would ensure economic, spiritual and cultural continuance. Knowledge was of itself and sacred. The passing down of knowledge from generation to generation through the elders was driven by this circle. Are we able to return to this? To know and respect that all living things are connected is to understand the importance of finding one’s place. This great respect for all things living is because human survival depends on other life forms.

Ceremony

Understanding of and respect for ceremony is key to our well-being as a people, for it is through participation in our ceremonies that we connect with each other and with all that the Creator has granted. Each Native group practices their own rituals such as the sweet grass and pipe ceremonies used in formal meeting forums and in times of mourning. Through this sharing one becomes part of it and experiences something for which there are no words.

Orality

Once we were a society richly based in oral tradition where the rhythm of the voice allowed us to become emotionally connected to the meaning. The elders were needed to tell us of our ways. The language was a life unto itself, and when we lose the language we lose our thought processes as well. From a contemporary standpoint, we have had to reconstruct what oral tradition means to our culture. Graveline (1998) discusses that thought patterns, prior to colonization, were an unconscious part of our being patterned through stories and rituals. As we translate this consciousness into words, into another language, we are formulating a modern form of communication where some of the meaning is lost.

References

Cordero, Carlos (1995). “A Working and Evolving Definition of Culture.” In Canadian Journal of Native Education. Vol.21 Supplement.

Graveline, Fyre Jean (1998). Circle Works. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing

Leavitt, Robert (1995). “Language and Cultural Content in Native Education.” In The Circle Unfolds. Marie Battiste and Jean Barman, eds., Vancouver: UBC Press.

Tafoya, T. (1995). “Finding Harmony.” In Canadian Journal of Native Education. Vol.21.

**Personal Information that could be added to information sheet in the Programming Working Group binder.

Notes from the author

My work as an educator in a First Nations school and in the provincial education system has afforded me varied roles and perspectives. As a person of Native ancestry I have known confusion in these systems. One of my current areas of focus is building relations between the First Nations communities that are members of the Ogemawahj Tribal Council and the district school boards. I see that there is a continuing need for progress to be made in terms of education of our Native children. I see part of my role as being an advocate for a heightened awareness of what it means to be “different”; as a link between different lifeways. As I weave my way through the systems that have become my work experience, I hope to draw a path that may ease the way for others.

Understanding how humans learn has long been the exclusive domain of educational psychology. This once obscure aspect of education has been of little interest to mainstream educators. In recent years, renewed research in cognition and human information processing has resulted in the development of effective learning and study strategies that can be taught.

Mainstream educators know the majority of their students seem to instinctively understand how to approach learning while other students don’t appear to have the slightest idea. Research suggests individuals with learning disabilities do not develop their own strategies. Instead of thinking of children with learning disabilities as having perceptual deficits, they are now being viewed as having strategy deficits. It is thought that by teaching them how to learn, acquiring an education will be easier. There are a multitude of learning strategies people employ while learning new material. Weinstein and Mayer (1985) categorized strategies and identified five general types. They are:

Rehearsal strategies

These involve repeating the material, either orally or by writing, until it is committed to memory. This is the easiest way to memorize straightforward information such as sight words, multiplication tables or phone numbers. Using rehearing strategies are most effective for people with learning disabilities when they are multi-sensory and all the senses are employed in the rehearsal.

Some children get stuck and rely only on rehearsal strategies, when others may prove to be more efficient. They may not have learned to choose an appropriate strategy because their choices are rarely monitored by the teacher. Gradually, learners come to realize certain kinds of material, which is interesting and organized, is easier to learn; recognition tests are easier than recall tests; paraphrasing is easier than verbatim recall; or active rehearsal produces better results than silent reading.

Elaboration Strategies

These involve making connections between new material and previously learned information. Learning information that is connected to something already learned aids in retention. Most students have little difficulty making these connections. However, for children with learning disabilities, the connections may not be as apparent and links need to be demonstrated.

Organizational Strategies

These involve imposing structure on material to be learned by dividing it into parts and organizing it in a systematic way.

Comprehension-monitoring Strategies

These involve remaining aware of what one is trying to accomplish. It is necessary to know what the learning goal is if you are ever going to achieve it. Shooting for an object is easier once the objective is clearly defined. Only then can the learner monitor their progress towards the goal. ‘What do I have to learn? What have I learned so far?. And, what is there left to learn?”, are monitoring strategies.

Affective strategies

These involve eliminating undesirable affect and getting ready to learn. They include establishing and maintaining motivation, focusing attention, maintaining concentration, managing performance anxiety, and managing time effectively.

Teaching children strategies for learning is being recognized by mainstream and special educators as an effective way to help children with learning problems.

For more information about how people learn, look for books on metacognition at your local library.

Reprinted from The Advocate, LDA BC

What Is Taught

Phonology and Phonological Awareness: Phonology is the study of sounds and how they work within their environment. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a given language that can be recognized as being distinct from other sounds in the language. Phonological awareness is the understanding of the internal linguistic structure of words. An important aspect of phonological awareness is phonemic awareness or the ability to segment words into their component sounds.

Sound-Symbol Association: This is the knowledge of the various sounds in the English language and their correspondence to the letters and combinations of letters which represent those sounds. Sound-symbol association must be taught (and mastered) in two directions: visual to auditory and auditory to visual. Additionally, students must master the blending of sounds and letters into words as well as the segmenting of whole words into the individual sounds.

Syllable Instruction: A syllable is a unit of oral or written language with one vowel sound. Instruction must include the teaching of the six basic types of syllables in the English Language: closed, vowel-consonant-e, open, consonant-le, r-controlled, and diphthong. Syllable division rules must be directly taught in relation to the word structure.

Morphology: Morphology is the study of how morphemes are combined from words. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in the language. The curriculum must include the study of base words, roots, and affixes.

Syntax: Syntax is the set of principles that dictate the sequence and function of words in a sentence in order to convey meaning. This includes grammar, sentence variation and the mechanics of language.

Semantics: Semantics is that aspect of language concerned with meaning. The curriculum (from the beginning) must include instruction in the comprehension of written language.

How It Is Taught

Simultaneous, Multisensory (VAKT): Teaching is done using all learning pathways in the brain (visual/auditory, kinesthetic-tactile) simultaneously in order to enhance memory and learning.

Systematic and Cumulative: Multisensory language instruction requires that the organization of material follows the logical order of the language. The sequence must begin with the easiest and most basic elements and progress methodically to more difficult material. Each step must also be based on those already learned. Concepts taught must be systematically reviewed to strengthen memory.

Direct Instruction: The inferential learning of any concept cannot be taken for granted. Multisensory language instruction requires the direct teaching of all concepts with continuous student-teacher interaction.

Diagnostic Teaching: The teacher must be adept at prescriptive or individualized teaching. The teaching plan is based on careful and continuous assessment of the individual’s needs. The content presented must be mastered to the degree of automaticity.

Synthetic and Analytic Instruction: Multisensory, structured language programs include both synthetic and analytic instruction. Synthetic instruction presents the parts of the language and then teaches how the parts work together to form a whole. Analytic instruction presents the whole and teaches how this can be broken down into its component parts.

Multisensory Structured Language Programs

From the original Orton-Gillingham method, many variations have been developed. Some of the modified Orton-Gillingham methods written by Orton students are The Slingerland Method, The Spalding Method, Project Read, Alphabetic Phonics, The Herman Method, and The Wilson Method. Other works included in which the authors of the programs used the tenets of Orton’s work, but were not directly trained by Orton-Gillingham personnel are The Alphabetic- Phonetic- Structural -Linguistic approach to Literacy (Shedd), Sequential English Education (Pickering), and Starting Over (Knight). The Association Method (DuBard), and the Lindamood-Bell Method (Lindamood -Bell) have as their basis the research into hearing impaired and language impaired individuals.

Create Appreciation of the Written Word
Long before children are able to engage in reading themselves, they must feel that reading is something they would like to do. They must develop an appreciation of the pleasures of written language and of the many ways language is useful.

Develop Awareness of Printed Language
Children need to develop a basic sense of what print looks like and how it works. They must learn how to handle a book, which way to turn the pages, and that the printed words – not the pictures – tells the story when you read. Children should be taught that words are all around them – in newspapers, mail, billboards, signs, and labels – and have many different and valuable purposes.

Learn the Alphabet
Comfortable and early familiarity with letters is critical for learning to read. Children should learn the names of letters and to recognize and form their corresponding shapes.

Understand the Relation of Letters and Words
Children need to learn that printed words are made up of ordered strings of letters, read left to right. They should be helped to understand that when the combination or order of letters is changed, the word that is spelled also changes.

Understand That Language is Made of Words, Syllables, and Phonemes
The ability to think about words as a sequence of phonemes is essential to learning how to read an alphabetic language. Children should become aware of the building blocks of spoken language. They need to understand that sentences are made up of strings of separate words. They should become comfortable in hearing and creating rhymes. They should be led to play with the sounds of language until they can pull words apart into syllables, and pull syllables into individual phonemes.*

*A phoneme is the smallest functional unit of speech. The word “cat” contains three phonemes: the /k/, /a/, and /t/ sounds. Letters often represent more than one phoneme – the a in “cat” is a different sound thant the a in “cake” – and sometimes a single letter will contain more than one phoneme. For example, the word “ox” has two letters but three phonemes: /o/, /k/, and /s/. Fluent readers learn to recognize these discrete sounds of spoken words quickly, accurately, and automatically. Phonemic awareness is the foundation on which all other reading skills are built.

Learn Letter Sounds
Given a comfortable familiarity with letters and an awareness of the sounds of phonemes, children are ready to learn about letter-sound correspondence. The most important goal at this first stage is to help children understand that the logic of the alphabetic writing system is built on these correspondences.

Sound Out New Words
As children learn specific letter-sound correspondences, they should be challenged to use this knowledge to sound out new words in reading and writing. Making a habit of sounding out unfamiliar words contributes strongly to reading growth, not just for beginners, but for all readers. Children need to understand that sounding out new words can actually be a strategy for helping them unlock pronunciations of words they have never seen before, and can make what they are reading understandable.

Identify Words in Print Accurately and Easily
The ability to read with fluency and comprehension depends on recognizing most words almost instantly and effortlessly. Once the framework for a new word or spelling has been laid, through sounding and blending, the key to recognizing it quickly and easily is practice. The most useful practice is reading and rereading of meaningful text made up of words the child has been taught to sound out. For beginners, such reading helps most if it is relatively easy. As a rule of thumb, no more than one in 20 words should cause trouble.

Know Spelling Patterns
As children become reasonably capable of sounding out words in reading and spelling, it is important that they notice the similarities in their spellings. Awareness of spelling patterns that recur across words hastens progress in reading and writing, and weak knowledge of spelling is an impediment to mature readers.

Learn to Read Reflectively
Although the ability to sound out words is essential for learning to read, it is not enough. Written language is not just speech written down. Instead, text brings new vocabulary, new language patterns, new thoughts, and new modes of thinking. To enjoy and profit from reading, children must also learn to take the time to reflect on these aspects of text.

Reprinted from: “Learning To Read/Reading To Learn” information kit developed by The National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators, University of Oregon

What is Occupational Therapy?
Occupational Therapy is a health service that is concerned with an individual’s ability to participate in desired purposeful activity or “occupations”, which give one’s life meaning. If a person’s ability to perform these daily life tasks, which includes caring for one’s self or others, working, going to school, playing, learning and living independently is impacted by an illness, disease and/or disability, occupational therapy can be important.

What are the Qualifications of an Occupational Therapist?
Occupational Therapists hold baccalaureate, post-baccalaureate or master’s degrees and must be registered with their Provincial College of Occupational Therapy. Occupational Therapists must complete supervised clinical internships in a variety of health and educational settings and must pass a national certification examination in order to practice.
Occupational Therapy education includes the study of human growth and development grounded in medical, biological, behavioural and social sciences with specific emphasis on the social, emotional and physiological implications of illness, injury and disability.

Occupational Therapy Services in the School/Educational Setting:

The Occupational Therapist is responsible for:

• assessment, planning and goal development
• for providing appropriate accommodations or interventions designed to enhance the student’s potential for learning
• to assist the student in acquiring those functional performance skills needed to participate in and benefit from the educational environment
• to help the student function independently

Responsibilities of an Occupational Therapist:

Screening:

• allows the Occupational Therapist to identify those students who need further evaluation
• should be appropriate to the chronological, educational and/or functional level of the student

Assessment:

• evaluates the student’s educationally related needs toward identifying and creating goals and accommodations or interventions that may also be included in the student’s IEP
• areas of evaluation may include: gross motor skills;fine motor skills; sensorimotor skills and performance;visual-motor and perceptual skill performance; independent physical daily living skills; environmental/ therapeutic adaptions; adaptive behavioural responses

Reassessment:

• to help re-evaluate the student’s progress and/or current needs and re-establish goals, accommodations and/or interventions.

Communication:

• communicate assessment results with the educational team, parents, student, and with other appropriate professionals and agencies
• attend in-school meetings and/or team conferences as appropriate
• provide regular communication with parents about intervention changes either in writing or by phone
• provide follow-up regarding the student on a regular and agreed upon schedule with the educational team
• provide written communication about changes or additions to agreed upon program accommodations and/or interventions
• refers to appropriate professionals, agencies or programs as appropriate

Program planning:

• plan and develop therapeutic goals, accommodations and/or interventions that are educationally relevant and will be functionally used in the student’s educational programs
• determine if indirect or direct intervention services by an occupational therapist is required (direct intervention services may be provided by another agency)
• assess for eligibility criteria for equipment funded through the Assistive Devices Program (MOHLTC)
• may refer to other community agencies, programs when appropriate

Consultation:

• in some cases, consultation to follow-up on designed programs that will be carried out by the educational team is required
• the Occupational Therapist will review the existing program and interventions, help design or change further these interventions and/or accommodations in conjunction with input from the educational team
• arrange for follow-up on an agreed upon timetable

Inservices:

• facilitate and/or participate in in-service educational programs that benefits the educational staff or system

How Do I Contact an Occupational Therapist?
There may be a specific track that you must follow in your particular school or board in order to access Occupational Therapy Services. The following seem to be the most common venues. Please check with your own school to see if this differs.

a. Where is no occupational therapist in your board:

• contact the SERT about a particular student, stating why you would like an Occupational Therapist (OT) to see the child
• the SERT, vice-principal or principal then contacts the parent to make them aware of the potential referral, which allows them to disclose basic information about the child
• referral made to the Community Care Access Centre (CCAC), School Health Support Services Program and they arrange for disclosure of information
• if the child meets the criteria for eligibility into the program, CCAC then arranges for an Occupational Therapist to come into the school to do an evaluation, shares the results and set up a program

b. Where there is an occupational therapist employed by your board:

• contact the SERT about your concerns about a particular child
• the SERT or the teacher contacts the parents to explain why they would like the Occupational Therapist to see the child
• parents are asked to sign a Consent to Access the OSR so the therapist can review relevant information in the OSR, speak to pertinent educational staff working with the student, screen and/or evaluate the student, share the results and set up a program (therapists in some school boards only provide consultation while others may provide direct intervention and/or consultation)
• if the therapist only provides consultation and in his/her professional opinion, based on his/her evaluation feels the child would benefit from more direct intervention, the therapist may then contact the Community Care Access Centre (CCAC) to arrange for a therapist to treat the child at the school
• parents would sign a form to release information to the CCAC so the therapist can make the referral and share her findings with the therapist, the OT employed by the Board of Ed. will continue to communicate with the teacher and the CCAC therapist to co-ordinate information and program suggestions